The energetic basis of the urban heat island

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological SocietyVolume 108, Issue 455 p. 1-24 Article The energetic basis of the urban heat island T. R. Oke, T. R. Oke Department of Geography, The University of British Columbia, VancouverSearch for more papers by this author T. R. Oke, T. R. Oke Department of Geography, The University of British Columbia, VancouverSearch for more papers by this author First published: January 1982 https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710845502Citations: 1,072AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Angell, J. K. and Bernstein, A. B. 1975 Flow across an urban area determined from double-theodolite pilot balloon observations, J. App. Met., 14, 1072–1079. Atwater, M. A. 1971, The radiation budget for polluted layers of the urban environment, J. App. Met., 10, 205–214. 1975 Thermal changes induced by urbanization and pollutants, J. App. Met., 14, 1061–1071. Auer, A. H., Jr. 1975 Calculations of divergence from the wind field over an urban area, Proc. 2nd US Nat. Conf. Wind Eng. Res., WERC/NSF, Ft. Collins, Colo., pp. 1–20-1 to 1–20-3. Bailey, W. G. 1977 Atmospheric and surface control on evapotranspiration during soybean maturation, Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, Ont., 162 pp. Bergstrom, R. W. Jr. and R. Viskanta 1973 Modelling the effects of gaseous and particulate pollutants in the urban atmosphere, Part I: Thermal structure, J. App. Met., 12, 901–912. Berlyand, M. Ye., Kondrat'yev, K. Ya., Vasil'yev, O. B. Vasil'chenko, I. V. Zhvalev, V. F. Zrazhevskiy, I. M. and Ivlev, L. S. 1974 Combined investigations of peculiarities of the meteoro-logical regime of a big city in the example of Zaporozh'ye (CAENEX-72), Met. i Gidrol., No. 1, pp. 14–23. Bornstein, R. D. 1968 Observations of the urban heat island effect in New York City, J. App. Met., 575–582. Bowling, S. A. and Benson, C. S. 1978 Study of the subarctic heat island at Fairbanks, Alaska, Envir. Monit. Rep. No. EPA-600/4–78–027, US EPA, Research Triangle Pk., N. C., 150 pp. Bryson, R. A. and Ross, J. E. 1972 The climate of the city, Ch. 3 in Urbanization and Environment, T. R. Detwyler and M. G. Marcus (eds.) Duxbury Press, Belmont, 51–68. Carlson, T. N., Dodd, J. K., Benjamin, S. G. and Cooper, J. N. 1981 Satellite estimation of the surface energy balance, moisture availability and thermal inertia, J. App. Met., 20, 67–87. Chandler, T. J. 1965 The Climate of London, Hutchinson, London, 292 pp. 1967 Night-time temperatures in relation to Leicester's urban form, Met. Mag., 96, 244–250. 1970 Selected bibliography on urban climate, Tech. Note No. 155, WMO No. 276, World Met. Organiz., Geneva, 383 pp. 1976 The climate of towns, Ch. 14 in the ‘ The Climate of the British Isles’, T. J. Chandler and S. Gregory, (eds.), Longman, London, pp. 307–329. Ching, J. K. S., Clarke, J. F. and Godowitch, J. M. 1978 The variability of the heat flux and mixed layer depth over St. Louis, Missouri, WMO Symp. Bound. Layer Physics App. Spec. Problems Air Poll., WMO No. 510, World Met. Organiz., Geneva, pp. 71–78. Clarke, J. F. 1969 Nocturnal urban boundary layer over Cincinnati, Ohio, Mo. Weath. Rev., 97, 582–589. Coakley, J. A. Jr. and Chylek, P. 1975 The two-stream approximation in radiative transfer: including the angle of the incident radiation, J. Atmos. Sri., 32, 409–418. Coppin, P. A. 1979 Turbulent fluxes over a uniform urban surface. Ph.D. thesis, Flinders Univ., Adelaide, 196 pp. Counihan, J. 1975 Adiabatic atmospheric boundary layers: a review and analysts of data from the period 1880–1972, Atmos. Envir., 9, 871–905. Daniel, C. E. J. and Krishnamurthy, K. 1973 Urban temperature fields at Poona and Bombay, Indian J. Met. Geophys., 24, 407–412. Duckworth, F. S. and Sandbcrg, J. S. 1954 The effect of cities upon horizontal and vertical temperature gradients, Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 35, 198–207. Fuggle, R. F. and Oke, T. R. 1976 Long-wave radiative flux divergence and nocturnal cooling of the urban atmosphere, I: Above roof-level, Bound. Layer Met., 10, 113–120. Hags, K. D. 1975 Urban-rural humidity differences, J. App. Met., 14, 1277–1283. Howard, L. 1833 The Climate of London, Vols. I-lll, London. Jauregui, E. 1973 Urban climate of Mexico City, Erdkunde, 27, 298–307. Kalanda, B. D., Oke, T. R. and Spittlehouse, D. L. 1980 Surburban energy balance estimates for Vancouver, B.C. using the Bowen ratio-energy balance approach, J. App. Met., 19, 791–802. Kalma, J. D., Aston, A. R. and Millington, R. J. 1972 Energy use in the Sydney area, Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust., 7, 125–142. Kawamura, T. 1964 Some considerations on the cause of city temperature at Kumagaya City, Geog. Rev. Japan., 37, 560–565. Lacy, R. E. 1977 Climate and Building in Britain, Build. Res. Estab. Report, HMSO, London, 185 pp. Landsberg, H. E. 1979 Atmospheric changes in a growing community, Urban Ecol., 4, 53–82. Landsberg, H. E. and Maisel, T. N. 1972 Micrometeorological observations in an area of urban growth, Bound. Layer Met., 2, 365–370. Lee, D. D. 1975 Rural atmospheric stability and the intensity of London's heat island, Weather, 30, 102–109. 1979 Contrasts in warming and cooling rates at an urban and rural site, Weather, 34, 60–66. Ludwig, F. L. 1970 Urban air temperatures and their relation to extraurban meteorological measurements, Amer. Soc. Heat. Refrig. Air-Condit. Eng., Publ. No. SF-70–9, pp. 40–45. Mather, J. R. 1978 The Climatic Water Budget in Environmental Analysis, Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass. Nicol, K. S. 1976 Anthropogenic heat and its relation to building and urban climate in Inuvik, N.W.T., M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., 130 pp. Noilhan, J. 1980 Contribution a I'etude du microclimat au voisinage d'un bǎtiment, Ph.D. thesis, L'universite Paul Sabatier de Toulouse, Toulouse, 160 pp. Nunez, M. 1974 The energy balance of an urban canyon, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia, Vancouver, 161 pp. Nunez, M. and Oke, T. R. 1976 Long-wave radiative flux divergence and nocturnal cooling of the urban atmosphere, II: Within an urban canyon, Bound. Layer Met., 10, 121–135. 1977 The energy balance of an urban canyon, J. App. Met., 16, 11–19. 1980 Modelling the daytime urban surface energy balance, Geog. Analysis, 12, 373–386. Oke, T. R. 1973 City size and the urban heat island, Atmos. Envir., 7, 769–779. 1974 Review of urban climatology, 1968–1973, Tech. Note No. 134, WMO No. 383, World Met. Organiz., Geneva, 132 pp. 1976 The distinction between canopy and boundary layer urban heat islands, ATMOSPHERE, 14, 268–277. 1978a Boundary Layer Climates, Methuen, London, 372 pp. 1978b Advectively-assisted evapotranspiration from irrigated urban vegetation, Bound. Layer Met., 17, 167–173. 1978c Surface heat fluxes and the urban boundary layer, WMO Symp. Bound. Layer Phys. App. Spec. Problems Air Poll., WMO No. 510, World Met. Organiz., Geneva, pp. 63–69. 1979 Review of urban climatology, 1973–1976, Tech. Note No. 169, WMO No. 539, World Met. Organiz., Geneva, 100 pp. 1981 Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field observations, J. Climatol., 1 (in press). Oke, T. R. and East, C. 1971 The urban boundary layer in Montreal, Bound. Layer Met., 1, 411–437. Oke, T. R. and Fuggle, R. F. 1972 Comparison of urban/rural counter and net radiation at night, Bound. Layer Met., 2, 290–308. Oke, T. R., Kalanda, B. D. and Steyn, D. G. 1981 Parameterization of heat storage in urban areas. Urban Ecol., 5, 45–54. Oke, T. R. and Maxwell, G. B. 1975 Urban heat island dynamics in Montreal and Vancouver, Atmos. Envir., 9, 191–200. Peterson, J. T. and Stoffel, T. L. 1980 Analysis of urban-rural solar radiation data from St. Louis, Missouri, J. App. Met., 19, 275–283. Priestley, C. H. B. and 1972 On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using Taylor, R. J.: large-scale parameters, Mo. Weath. Rev., 100, 81–92. Probald, F. 1975 A varosklimatologia idωszeru feladatai, Idojaras, 79, 69–76. Rouse, W. R., Noad, D. and McCutcheon, J. 1973 Radiation, temperature and atmospheric emissivities in a urban atmosphere at Hamilton, Ontario, J. App. Met., 12, 798–807. Sellers, W. D. 1965 Physical Climatology, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 272 pp. Smith, F. B. and Hunt, R. D. 1978 Meteorological aspects of the transport of pollution over long distances, Atmos. Envir., 12, 461–477. Spangler, T. C. and Dirks, R. A. 1974 Meso-scale variations of the urban mixing height. Bound. Layer. Met., 6, 423–441. Sundborg, A. 1951 Climatological studies in Uppsala with special regard to the temperature conditions in the urban area, Geographica, Geog. Instit., Uppsala, No. 22, 111 pp. Taesler, R. 1981 Urban meteorological studies in Uppsala, Acta Univ. Uppsala, Abstr. Uppsala Dissert. Faculty of Sci., No. 592, Uppsala, 21 pp. Takahashi, K. 1959 Relation between the air temperature distribution and the density of houses in small cities of Japan, Geog. Rev. Japan, 32, 305–313. Tanner, C. B. and Pelton, W. L. 1960 Energy balance data Hancock, Wisconsin, Soils Bull. No. 2, Dept. Soils, Univ. Wisconsin, Madison, Wise., 110 pp. Terjung, W. H. and Collaborators 1971 The effect of cyclonic storm on the energy fluxes at the urban interface - a preliminary experiment, Archiv. Met. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. B, 19, 367–416. Terjung, W. H. and Louie, S. S-F. 1974 A climatic model of urban energy budgets, Geog. Analysis, 6, 341–367. Terjung, W. H. and O'Rourke, P. A. 1980 Influences of physical structures on urban energy budgets, Bound. Layer Met., 19, 421–439. Tyson, P. D., Du Toit, W. J. F. and Fuggle, R. F. 1972 Temperature structure above cities: review and preliminary findings from the Johannesburg urban heat island project, Atmos. Environ., 6, 533–542. Unwin, D. J. 1980 The synoptic climatology of Birmingham's urban heat island, 1965–74, Weather, 35, 43–50. White, J. M., Eaton, F. D. and Aucr, A. H. Jr. 1978 The net radiation budget of the St. Louis metropolitan area, J. App. Met., 17, 593–599. Yap, D. and Oke, T. R. 1974 Sensible heat fluxes over an urban area - Vancouver, B.C., J. App. Met., 13, 880–890. Citing Literature Volume108, Issue455January 1982Pages 1-24 ReferencesRelatedInformation