Recent advances in wearable biosensors for non-invasive monitoring of specific metabolites and electrolytes associated with chronic kidney disease: Performance evaluation and future challenges

Currently, the diagnosis of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is generally made by painful and prolonged procedures for blood screening. Therefore, it is desirable to develop rapid, non-invasive monitoring strategies as an alternative. It is noted that the majority of the typical molecular markers related to the progression and diagnosis of CKD have not been explored sufficiently for the clinical applications. This review extends systematic and critical overview on the microfluidic wearable biosensors for the monitoring of CKD associated targets in peripheral body fluids (e.g., interstitial fluid (ISF), sweat, saliva, and tears). The performance of recently reported wearable devices is also assessed in terms of various quality assurance parameters used for the analysis of CKD related metabolites (i.e., limit of detection, measurement range, and analytical method). At last, our discussion is extended to the various challenges and future prospects for their practical adoption and upscaling.