Advances in the molecular regulation of seed germination in plants

Seed germination is a key process in the life cycle of seed plants. The initiation of seed germination requires the activity of specific internal signaling molecules, such as hormones and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and is dependent on external environmental factors, such as water, temperature, and light. Seed germination is a complex trait that is regulated by multiple factors, including transcript, protein, and metabolite levels. This review highlights current knowledge relating to the regulatory roles of hormones, ROS, small RNAs, epigenetic modifications, post-translational modifications, and environmental cues on seed germination, mainly focusing on Arabidopsis and rice. The review on the molecular regulation of seed germination contributes to the improvement of crop seed quality using bio-breeding approaches.