Impact of Urban built-up volume on Urban environment: A Case of Jakarta

In this paper, the spatial patterns of urban form (e.g., 2D and 3D characteristics) from 2000 to 2020 in Jakarta are assessed and the interdependent relationships between urban built-up volume and urban environment are examined. Jakarta experienced rapid urban built-up land expansion of 19%, from 483 km2 in 2000 to 574 km2 in 2020 but with moderate urban built-up volumetric expansion at 4%, from 23.6 × 108 m3 in 2000 to 24.5 × 108 m3 in 2020. The inverse S-shaped function revealed that urban land density declined from the city center to surrounding areas in Jakarta. Urban built-up area expanded outward at a much faster rate than upward, reflected by the D value, i.e., the radius of the central city area. The D value remained around 17 km from 2000 to 2020 for 3D but grew substantially from 28 km to 50 km for 2D during the same period. Furthermore, structural equation model (SEM) analysis showed that, while increases in urban built-up volume are associated with increases in urban green space, with a path coefficient of 0.620, they also are linked with worsening air pollution and urban heat islands, with statistically significant path coefficients of 0.304 and 0.440, respectively.