Biomedical Applications with Multiscale Structures Produced by Additive Manufacturing

In biomedical applications, various additive manufacturing (AM) techniques such as fused deposition modeling (FDM), inkjet, stereolithography (STL), direct powder extrusion (DPE), and selective laser sintering (SLS), as well as other digitally controlled 3D printing (3DP) techniques, are used. Advances in AM methods have led to the development of tissues, microdevices, artificial organs, personalized prostheses and orthoses, dental and various bone implants, biopharmaceutical applications and drug delivery system (DDS), and patient-specific surgical models, etc. that require multiscale structures, materials and functions. It enables the three-dimensional (3D) design and manufacturing of biomedical products with complex geometries. Additionally, it enables the modeling and 3DP using the biomimetic approach for applications that require lightweight and durable structures as well as biocompatibility. The purpose of this study is to review macro-to-nano multiscale AM technologies, design and modeling status, materials, and applications used for biomedical applications. Additionally, recommendations are given on what needs to be done to overcome the current limitations and challenges of micro/-nano printing in current AM technologies.