Associations between urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites and cognitive function in older adults

The effects of caffeine on cognitive impairment have not been conclusively determined. This study aimed to objectively assess the correlation between the urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites and cognitive decline in older adults.Data on urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites and the cognitive performance of participants aged 60 years and older were extracted from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2011-2014. Binary logistic regression and restricted cubic splines (RCS) analyses were used to evaluate the association between urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites and cognitive performance.Eight hundred twenty-seven individuals were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. We observed that 1-methylxanthine, 3-methylxanthine, 7-methylxanthine, 1,3-dimethylxanthine, 1,7-dimethylxanthine, and 3,7-dimethylxanthine levels were significantly and inversely associated with cognitive decline. The RCS results suggested an approximately linear dose-response relationship between the aforementioned metabolites and cognitive performance. Moreover, the effects of urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites on cognitive function assessed using the AFT were more evident in men.Our study suggested that urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolite levels were associated with a reduced risk of cognitive impairment in a linear manner, especially in men.