Potential electrochemical reactions provoked by prolonged electrical stimulation and neuromodulation: in vitro porcine model

Recent neuromodulation studies used repurposed low-frequency (1–5 Hz) monophasic nerve localization stimulators of 200 µs up to 1 mA[1][1] or specialized high-frequency (100 Hz) biphasic chronic pain stimulators of 200 µs up to 30 mA[2][2] for acute pain management. Reactive particles (H+