Stainless steel: A high potential material for green electrochemical energy storage and conversion

Stainless steel, a cost-effective material comprising Fe, Ni, and Cr with other impurities, is considered a promising electrode for green electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems. However, the Cr in stainless steel and its passivating property in electrochemical systems hinder the commercial use of stainless steel in the energy conversion and storage industry. Therefore, many studies have revealed the usability of stainless steel by developing various surface treatment techniques to modify the electrode surface to take advantage of the intrinsically active elements in stainless steel. In this review, we present the recent advances and breakthroughs in surface treatment approaches to adjust surface composites and the electrochemical performance and rational design of electrodes in green energy storage and conversion systems, including (photo)electrochemical water splitting, Li-ion batteries, and supercapacitors.