Dissonance motivation from an action-based perspective: An updated review

After briefly describing the original theory of cognitive dissonance, we review recent and novel empirical insights that shed light on: (1) the minimal cognitive conditions necessary to evoke the negative affective state of dissonance; (2) how effort leads to increased reward valuation even on implicit measures; and (3) how belief disconfirmation causes individuals to engage in a wide variety of responses to reduce dissonance. Then, we describe the action-based model and its empirical contributions. In doing so, we review experiments that demonstrate that manipulations of approach motivational states via mindsets, neurofeedback, and body postures influence cognitive dissonance reduction as well as the experience of dissonance. We also review individual difference studies and experiments that demonstrate that dissonance processes influence behaving effectively, as predicted by the action-based model. Finally, we discuss some areas in need of future investigation.