Smartphones as Surrogate Attachment: Examining Digital Dependency and Emotional Bonds Among Left-Behind Children in China

Smartphones are gradually becoming surrogate attachment figures for people. This is particularly true for Left-Behind Children (LBC) in China, who, due to long-term separation from their parents, lack reliable and stable emotional support and thus turn to smartphones. The excessive digital dependency has led to nomophobia, which emphasizes the anxiety and discomfort people experience when they are temporarily unable to use or need to be separated from their mobile devices. Drawing from the integrative hypothesis of attachment theory, the research investigates how congruence and incongruence in parent-child attachment patterns influence LBC’s nomophobia. Data were collected from 476 LBC (aged 11–15 years) in Sichuan Province. Polynomial regression with response surface analysis revealed two key findings. First, supporting the additive model , LBC with congruent higher levels of attachment to both parents exhibited lower levels of nomophobia compared with those with lower attachment levels. Second, in cases of incongruent attachment, higher maternal attachment was more effective in predicting lower levels of nomophobia than paternal attachment, confirming the hierarchical model . These findings highlight the crucial role of secure parental attachments in mitigating digital dependency among LBC and emphasize the particular importance of maternal attachment. The study suggests that strengthening remote parent–child communication and providing comprehensive emotional support could help prevent nomophobia in LBC.