Decoupling the Cumulative Contributions of Capacity Fade in Ethereal-Based Li–O2 Batteries

In the loop of numerous challenges and ambiguities, Li–O2 batteries are crawling to reach their commercialization phase. To achieve the progressive milestones, along with the developments in the architecture of cathodes, anodes, and electrolytes, understanding its failure mode is equally important. Under an unrestricted charge–discharge protocol, cyclability of nonaqueous Li–O2 batteries are limited to only a few cycles. This report examines an additive-free ether-based Li–O2 battery in the perspective of identifying the origin of possible side reactions and their affiliations to integral components of the battery. Structural and compositional changes during every charge–discharge sequence are studied using bottom-up sequential tear-down analysis. The substantial increase in impedance and corresponding decrease in capacities after every cycle are interrelated to the amount of electrode passivation resulting from the discharge products and electrolyte decomposition. From the tear-down analysis, it is approximated that, among the total capacity loss, ≈55% is attributed to the cathode, ≈28% of the loss corresponds to the anode, and ≈17% is attributed to the electrolyte, given that battery failure instigates from the "reactive oxygen species". Electrochemically formed Li2O2 via the superoxide pathway induces large decomposition overpotentials up to 4.6 V versus Li/Li+ because of its overrated reactivity with electrolytes and carbon supports. On the contrary, efficient decomposition of chemically formed Li2O2 below 3.9 V proves that the extra charge potential observed for electrochemically formed Li2O2 is in fact consumed for the decomposition of irreversibly formed side products via the superoxide pathway. Spontaneous reactivity of Li2O2 and trivial reactivity of Li2O highlight the need of advanced strategies to maneuver oxygen red-ox in selective pathways that unalter the electrolyte and electrodes, and the necessity of their synchronized performance for the evolution of practical Li–O2 batteries.