Nerve Stimulation: Immunomodulation and Control of Inflammation

Neuronal stimulation for physiological control is a recent field with major clinical implications for inflammation, infectious diseases, colitis, diabetes, obesity, hemorrhage, pancreatitis, quadriplegia, resuscitation, endotoxemia, septic shock, and sepsis. Transdermal nerve stimulation with acupuncture or electroacupuncture is currently endorsed by the WHO and the NIH, and is used by millions of people to control pain, inflammation, and organ function. Transdermal nerve stimulation with acupuncture or electroacupuncture can activate neuronal networks via local immune factors and neuronal opioid receptors. Neuronal sympathetic stimulation can induce local release of neurogenic norepinephrine, which may provide clinical advantages by inducing local control of inflammation, thereby avoiding collateral effects in non-targeted tissues. Neuromodulation studies of the immune system are suggesting new models of the functional organization of the nervous system in controlling inflammation, and may have important clinical implications in specific cohorts of patients. Neuronal stimulation is an emerging field in modern medicine to control organ function and re-establish physiological homeostasis during illness. Transdermal nerve stimulation with electroacupuncture is currently endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and is used by millions of people to control pain and inflammation. Recent advances in electroacupuncture may permit activation of specific neuronal networks to prevent organ damage in inflammatory and infectious disorders. Experimental studies of nerve stimulation are also providing new information on the functional organization of the nervous system to control inflammation and its clinical implications in infectious and inflammatory disorders. These studies may allow the design of novel non-invasive techniques for nerve stimulation to help to control immune and organ functions. Neuronal stimulation is an emerging field in modern medicine to control organ function and re-establish physiological homeostasis during illness. Transdermal nerve stimulation with electroacupuncture is currently endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and is used by millions of people to control pain and inflammation. Recent advances in electroacupuncture may permit activation of specific neuronal networks to prevent organ damage in inflammatory and infectious disorders. Experimental studies of nerve stimulation are also providing new information on the functional organization of the nervous system to control inflammation and its clinical implications in infectious and inflammatory disorders. These studies may allow the design of novel non-invasive techniques for nerve stimulation to help to control immune and organ functions. specific points on the body for stimulation, where a needle is inserted in acupuncture or pressure is applied in acupressure. defined by The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health at the NIH as ‘a technique in which practitioners stimulate specific points (acupoints) on the body − most often by inserting thin needles through the skin.’ adrenoceptors are G protein-coupled receptors activated by norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline). used in transplantation biology to refer to material from another genetically different body although belonging to the same species. a medullar structure in the central nervous system that integrates humoral and neural signals. mechanoreceptors located in the carotid sinus and in the aortic arch. Their function is to sense pressure changes by responding to a change in the tension of the arterial wall. The baroreflex mechanism is a fast response to changes in blood pressure. produced mainly by the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. There are three types of catecholamines: epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine. part of the sympathetic prevertebral chain possessing a great variety of specific receptors and neurotransmitters such as catecholamines, neuropeptides, and nitric oxide. Celiac ganglia contain neurons whose postganglionic axons innervate the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, kidney, small intestine, and colon. specialized cells of the adrenal medulla that are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete catecholamines into the bloodstream. enzymes that break the peptide bonds in collagen. the technique of applying heated cups to the skin, creating suction, thereby gently drawing the skin upwards into the cup. It is used, often in combination with acupuncture, to treat pain in muscles and connective tissues, such as neck, back, and shoulder pain, muscle knots, and swelling. a cellular process that releases molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells. It is used by immune cells including granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) and mast cells. loss of nerve supply with chemical toxicity, physical injury, or intentional surgical interruption of a nerve. a permutation of acupuncture, in which the needles are charged with low-voltage electric currents to stimulate the acupuncture points. indicates the presence of endotoxins in the blood. Endotoxins are derived from gram-negative bacteria and can cause hemorrhages, necrosis of the kidneys, and cardiovascular shock. a clinical condition that decreases the normal spontaneous movement of the muscles (motility) in your stomach to propel food through your digestive tract. a process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. those physiological responses mediated by molecules released into the humors or extracellular body fluids, such as secreted antibodies and complement proteins. a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (a pea-shaped structure located below the thalamus), and the adrenal (also called ‘suprarenal’) glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys). regulatory adjustment of the immune system. It has natural (in homeostasis in the immune system) and human-induced forms (in which immune responses are induced, amplified, attenuated, or prevented according to therapeutic goals). within the sole of the foot. type of granulocyte derived from the myeloid stem cell that is a part of the immune and neuroimmune systems. When activated, a mast cell can either selectively release (piecemeal degranulation) or rapidly release (anaphylactic degranulation) ‘mediators’, or compounds that induce inflammation, from storage granules into the local microenvironment. a traditional Japanese practice, a form of heat therapy in which dried herbal agents called ‘moxa’ are burned near the skin as a counter-irritant in the treatment of disease. This practice has evolved to use warming needles inserted in the skin similar to acupuncture. a synthetic drug similar to morphine that blocks opiate receptors in the nervous system. a type of lymphocyte (white blood cell) and a component of the innate immune system that plays a major role in the host-rejection of both tumors and virally infected cells. a physiological process by which a given neuron uses one or more chemicals to regulate diverse populations of cells. the sensory nervous system’s response to certain harmful or potentially harmful stimuli. Intense chemical, mechanical, or thermal stimulation of sensory nerve cells called nociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain of nerve fibers via the spinal cord to the brain and triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses that include experience of pain. external or internal physical changes (such as a heat) that induce afferent input in the nervous system, with or without sensory experience or a behavioral response. They are normally perceived as potentially tissue-damaging events that can cause pain. Algogenic stimuli are those that cause pain and are commonly noxious. a group of inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors activated by opioids. Opioid receptors have analgesic and neuroprotective effects. the part of the autonomic nervous system that contains cholinergic fibers, conserves energy, slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract. a nociceptive assay that measures the time of an animal, usually a rodent, to detect a noxious stimulus in the paw such as the feeling of pain. These assays measure the existence of pain through behaviors such as withdrawal, licking, immobility, and vocalization. longest and widest single nerve in the human body, going from the top of the leg to the foot on the posterior aspect. The sciatic nerve provides the connection to the nervous system for nearly the whole of the skin of the leg, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot. when an infection reaches the bloodstream and causes systemic inflammation in the body. Sepsis can develop into septic shock when the inflammatory responses cause a significant drop in arterial blood pressure that can lead to respiratory or heart failure, stroke, failure of other organs, and death. Severe sepsis is when the infection/inflammation is severe enough to affect the function of your organs. the part of the autonomic nervous system that runs through the spinal cord, contains adrenergic fibers and induces vasoconstriction and increased heart rate. a nociceptive assay that measures the time of an animal, usually a rodent, to detect a noxious stimulus in flick the tail. a technique of acupressure based on the deep manual massage of muscles and specific body parts improve blood flow and nerve stimulation similar to acupuncture to facilitate healing and treat pain and inflammation. a surgical procedure sectioning the vagus nerve. The most typical procedures include cervical or subdiaphragmatic vagotomy to study the role of the vagus nerve. the longest and principal nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system connecting the brain with most of the viscera.