Recent advances in 3D printed electrode materials for electrochemical energy storage devices

Electrochemical energy storage (EES) systems like batteries and supercapacitors are becoming the key power sources for attempts to change the energy dependency from inadequate fossil fuels to sustainable and renewable resources. Electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs) operate efficiently as a result of the construction and assemblage of electrodes and electrolytes with appropriate structures and effective materials. Conventional manufacturing procedures have restrictions on regulating the morphology and architecture of the electrodes, which would influence the performance of the devices. 3D printing (3DP) is an advanced manufacturing technology combining computer-aided design and has been recognised as an artistic method of fabricating different fragments of energy storage devices with its ability to precisely control the geometry, porosity, and morphology with improved specific energy and power densities. The capacity to create mathematically challenging shape or configuration designs and high-aspect-ratio 3D architectures makes 3D printing technology unique in its benefits. Nevertheless, the control settings, interactive manufacturing processes, and protracted post-treatments will affect the reproducibility of the printed components. More intelligent software, sophisticated control systems, high-grade industrial equipment, and post-treatment-free methods are necessary to develop. 3D printed (3DPd) EESDs necessitate dynamic printable materials and composites that are influenced by performance criteria and fundamental electrochemistry. Herein, we review the recent advances in 3DPd electrodes for EES applications. The emphasis is on printable material synthesis, 3DP techniques, and the electrochemical performance of printed electrodes. For the fabrication of electrodes, we concentrate on major 3DP technologies such as direct ink writing (DIW), inkjet printing (IJP), fused deposition modelling (FDM), and stereolithography 3DP (SLA). The benefits and drawbacks of each 3DP technology are extensively discussed. We provide an outlook on the integration of synthesis of emerging nanomaterials and fabrication of complex structures from micro to macroscale to construct highly effective electrodes for the EESDs.