Intestinal Akkermansia muciniphila complements the efficacy of PD1 therapy in MAFLD-related hepatocellular carcinoma

Highlights•Decreased Akk level is crucial for the development of MAFLD-induced HCC•Akk complements the therapeutic efficacy of PD1 therapy in MAFLD-induced HCC•Akk induces T cell infiltration via suppression of m-MDSCs and M2 macrophages•Akk as a potential biomarker for predicting the PD1 response and survivalSummaryImmune checkpoint inhibitors are not effective for metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD)-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients, and identifying the key gut microbiota that contributes to immune resistance in these patients is crucial. Analysis using 16S rRNA sequencing reveals a decrease in Akkermansia muciniphila (Akk) during MAFLD-promoted HCC development. Administration of Akk ameliorates liver steatosis and effectively attenuates the tumor growth in orthotopic MAFLD-HCC mouse models. Akk repairs the intestinal lining, with a decrease in the serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and bile acid metabolites, along with decrease in the populations of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (m-MDSCs) and M2 macrophages. Akk in combination with PD1 treatment exerts maximal growth-suppressive effect in multiple MAFLD-HCC mouse models with increased infiltration and activation of T cells. Clinically, low Akk levels are correlated with PD1 resistance and poor progression-free survival. In conclusion, Akk is involved in the immune resistance of MAFLD-HCC and serves as a predictive biomarker for PD1 response in HCC.Graphical abstract