Low-temperature ALD-grown SnO x interlayer for scalable and stable p–i–n perovskite solar cells and modules

ALD-SnO x at 80 °C eliminates ETL defects at the PC 61 BM interface, achieving 19.2% PCE for devices, 14.12% for modules, and >90% retention after 3000 h, overcoming ALD sensitivity issues for stable, scalable, and commercially viable p–i–n PSCs.