Advanced red phosphorus/carbon composites with practical application potential for sodium ion batteries

Although sodium ion batteries (SIBs) are one of the most promising battery technologies, their relatively low energy density impedes further development. This study presents the novel practical application potential of high-capacity red phosphorus (P) in full SIBs with reasonable energy density. Various optimization strategies are implemented systematically, which include the ball mill time, binders, conductive and electrolyte additives, and corresponding functional mechanisms are also conducted. In situ TEM and electrochemical characterization further indicate that the hybridization of hard carbon (HC) with desirable stability and phosphorus/carbon (PC) with large capacity is a preferred strategy to construct P-based full SIBs. The corresponding energy density is increased from 134 Wh Kg−1 (pure HC case) to 150 Wh Kg−1 (HC/PC case) through an electrochemical presodiation method. Notably, despite the various challenges faced by P anodes, the analysis conducted in this study is crucial for enabling the practical application of high-capacity phosphorus beyond laboratory research.