Overcoming limitations in electrochemical water softening: A comprehensive analysis of key factors and recent technological advancements

• Outlines limitations of traditional systems and technological improvements to address them. • The key factors affecting the softening efficiency are analyzed in detail. • The improved process of electrochemical water softening technology is summarized and analyzed. • The methods of cathode descaling and their advantages and disadvantages are summarized. • The bottle-necks and challenges for electrochemical softening techniques are highlighted. Due to its environmentally friendly and efficient characteristics, the electrochemical water softening process has garnered significant attention in recent years. However, there is still room for improvement in its softening efficiency. This article provides a detailed analysis of the impact of factors such as current density, hydraulic retention time, water quality parameters, and electrode materials on the water softening process. Additionally, it delves into the limitations of commonly used electrochemical water softening systems that impede their widespread adoption in industrial settings. Recent advancements in electrochemical water softening technology, including acid-base separation, electrode design, homogeneous nucleation, multi-process coupling, and cathode scale detachment, are reviewed to address these problems. Integrating engineering and fundamental research is crucial for advancing the industrial application of electrochemical water softening technology, leading to energy conservation, emission reduction, and environmental protection. Lastly, potential challenges and future research directions in electrochemical water softening are outlined.