Investigation of the viscous heating artefact arising from the use of thermocouples in a focused ultrasound field

Accurate temperature measurements in therapeutic ultrasound fields are necessary for understanding damage mechanisms, verification of thermal modelling and calibration of non-invasive clinical thermometry. However, artefactual heating, primarily due to viscous forces which result from motion relative to the surrounding tissue, occurs when metal thermocouples are used in an ultrasound field. The magnitude and time dependence of this artefact has been characterized by comparison with novel thin-film thermocouples (TFTs) at 1-2 cm focal depths in fresh degassed ex vivo bovine liver. High-intensity focused ultrasound exposures (1.7 MHz; free-field spatial-peak temporal-average intensities 40-600 W cm(-2)) were used. Subtraction of the TFT data from that obtained for other thermocouples yielded the time dependence of the viscous heating artefact. This was found to be intensity independent up to 600 W cm(-2) (below the threshold for cavitation and lesion formation) and remained significant at radial distances out to the first side lobe in the focal plane. The contribution of viscous heating to cooling was also found to be significant for at least 5 s after the end of insonation. The ratio of viscous artefact to absorptive heating after 5 s was: 1.76 +/- 0.07 for a fine-wire, 0.45 +/- 0.07 and 1.93 +/- 0.07 for two different sheathed-wires and 0.24 +/- 0.07 for a needle thermocouple.