Recent advances in wearable electrochemical sensors for in situ detection of biochemical markers

Abstract In recent years, wearable electrochemical sensors have been widely used for biochemical analysis. These sensors, which incorporate flexible electrodes and sensitive recognition elements on a flexible substrate, facilitate the noninvasive, in-situ , real-time, and continuous monitoring of target biochemical molecules in biofluids while maintaining high selectivity and sensitivity. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the principles guiding the selection of core components and the recent advances in wearable electrochemical sensors for biochemical markers in recent years. Initially, we outline the essential considerations in designing wearable sensors to detect biomarkers in biofluids, including sampling techniques, material selection, design parameters, recognition elements, sensing strategies, power requirements, data processing, and sensor integration. We emphasize the improved efficacy of recognition elements, which has been significantly enhanced by biotechnology and materials science developments, facilitating selective and sensitive detection of target components within complex matrices. Concurrently, incorporating nanomaterials and conductive polymers (CPs) has markedly improved the sensing capabilities of flexible electronics. Subsequently, we investigate recent progress in situ detection of biochemical markers utilizing wearable electrochemical sensors that employ advanced materials, optimized mechanical structures, and various conduction mechanisms. The notable applications stemming from these technological innovations illustrate significant improvements in sensitivity, reliability, and monitoring capabilities of wearable electrochemical sensors while enhancing user comfort. Finally, we address the current challenges and future perspectives regarding implementing clinically oriented wearable electrochemical sensors for disease monitoring and personalized medicine.