An exploratory study of the effects of mindfulness on perceived levels of stress among school-children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds

IntroductionChildren today are experiencing stress at unprecedented levels (Mendelson, Greenberg, Dariotis, Gould, Rhoades, & Leaf, 2010). A national study undertaken in Ireland revealed that approximately three quarters of children had experienced some form of stressful life event within the last year, with the most common experiences pertaining to death of a close family member, moving house or parental divorce or separation. These findings are of concern given that children who experience four or more stressful life events are at increased risk of developing emotional problems associated with hyperactivity or inattention (Williams et al., 2009).Many factors however, interact to create children's perception of stress including everyday hassles which have been identified as contributing more strongly to psychological and behavioural problems than major life events (Byrne, Thomas, Burchell, Olive & Mirabito, 2011; Compas et al., 1994). In line with this argument, a study undertaken in the UK revealed that nearly half of all children surveyed reported being unable to sleep as a result of stress owing to exams, family problems, bullying or friendship concerns. Furthermore, over half of those surveyed indicated that they felt worried or sad at least once a week (YouGov, 2013). These findings underscore the need to develop and implement effective interventions that enable children to recognise and cope effectively with daily stressors.Stress is defined as the body's fight-or-flight response, a natural state that is experienced mentally and physically whenever a threat or danger is perceived, along with a feeling of being unable to cope (Perry, Pollard, Blakley, Baker & Vigilante, 1995). While stress is a natural and necessary process in children's lives, it needs to be acknowledged, managed and channeled by every child individually, in order to prevent negative outcomes. Children in the social welfare system, who come from families at greater risk of poverty, have an increased prevalence of stress and mental health problems compared with those in the general population (Dore, 2005). Poor and minority children are more likely to be exposed to physical abuse and family violence, resulting in greater experiences of stress. In addition, insecurely attached children at high economic risk have higher levels of stress and depression than insecurely attached children at lower economic risk (Graham & Easterbrooks, 2000). Exposure to multiple poverty-related risks therefore negatively impacts on children's emotional self-efficacy (West, Denton, & Reaney, 2001). It is children's own perception of their capability to cope, or not cope, with stress which determines what goes unnoticed and what becomes a problem (Heubeck & O'Sullivan, 1998). Children from more disadvantaged backgrounds are therefore at increased risk for a range of negative outcomes including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, aggressive behaviour and conduct disorders (Napoli, Krech, & Holley, 2005; Parker & Roy, 2001). In turn, children suffering from social- emotional difficulties and behavioural problems are more likely to struggle at school, underperform academically and drop-out. The negative impact of stress on psychological and physiological functioning underscores the importance of having an effective stress management strategy which is amenable to children (Shapiro, Brown, & Astin, 2008).Schools serving children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have demonstrated increasing interest in reducing children's stress levels, but difficulties have been reported in identifying effective programs that are easy to implement on a broad scale (Barnes, Bauza, & Treiber, 2003). One approach to this growing problem may be to introduce mindfulness into the curriculum as a possible method of stress reduction among children (Napoli et al., 2005). Strategies designed to address stress should be a fundamental part of any successful education program as children can benefit from programs teaching positive coping skills and prevention of psychological and behavioural problems associated with high stress environments (Elkind, 2001; Klatt, Browne, Harpster, & Case-Smith, 2012). …