Analysis of hard carbon for lithium-ion batteries by hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

Non-graphitizable carbon (hard carbon) as a negative electrode material for lithium-ion batteries is investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HX-PES). HX-PES spectra have peaks of both the solid electrolyte interphase on the hard carbon surface and the hard carbon itself. The change in spectrum with state of charge is observed by HX-PES. Hard carbon has two types of lithium insertion site; between graphene sheets and into nano-scale voids. These spectroscopic results are consistent with the lithium insertion mechanism into hard carbon.