Oral natural extracellular vesicles for biomedical applications: Advances and clinical perspectives

The review provides a comparative analysis of EVs from animal and plant origins, emphasizing their stability in the gastrointestinal tract and their ability to encapsulate and protect bioactive molecules. It explores the mechanisms by which EVs overcome physiological barriers such as intestinal epithelium and the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and how surface modifications enhance tissue targeting. The review covers therapeutic applications in oncology, neurodegenerative, metabolic, inflammatory, and infectious diseases, highlighting advantages in improving oral bioavailability and reducing side effects. It also identifies current challenges in standardization, large-scale production, and drug loading efficiency. The review concludes by proposing future directions for optimizing EVs-based oral delivery systems and facilitating their clinical translation.