Exposure pathways, environmental processes and risks of micro (nano) plastics to crops and feasible control strategies in agricultural regions

Micro/nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) pollution may adversely impact agricultural ecosystems, threatening the sustainability and security of agricultural production. This drives an urgent need to comprehensively understand the environmental behavior and effects of MPs/NPs in soil and atmosphere in agricultural regions, and to seek relevant pollution prevention strategies. The rhizosphere and phyllosphere are the interfaces where crops are exposed to MPs/NPs. The environmental behavior of MPs/NPs in soil and atmosphere, especially in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, determines their plant accessibility, bioavailability and ecotoxicity. This article comprehensively reviews the transformation and migration of MPs/NPs in soil, transportation and deposition in the atmosphere, environmental behavior and effects in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, and plant uptake and transportation pathways. The article also summarizes the key factors controlling MPs/NPs environmental processes, including their properties, biotic and abiotic factors. Based on the sources, environmental processes and intake risks of MPs/NPs in agroecosystems, the article offers several feasible pollution prevention and risk management options. Finally, the review highlights the need for further research on MPs/NPs in agro-systems, including developing quantitative detection methods, exploring transformation and migration patterns in-situ soil, monitoring long-term field experiments, and establishing pollution prevention and control systems. This review can assist in improving our understanding of the biogeochemistry behavior of MPs/NPs in the soil-plant-atmosphere system and provide a roadmap for future research.