Wearable self-powered systems: Energy harvesting technologies and applications in health regulation

ABSTRACT Wearable systems are rapidly advancing toward flexibility, intelligence, and continuous operation driven by developments in flexible electronics, functional materials, and smart textiles. Conventional externally powered wearable devices rely on batteries or energy-storage units, which remain limited in flexibility, durability, and long-term stability. In contrast, wearable self-powered systems can harvest energy from human motion, body-surface temperature gradients, and ambient mechanical stimuli, thereby providing a sustainable power strategy for wearable health-regulation applications. This review classifies wearable systems into passive, externally powered, and self-powered systems, and systematically summarizes recent advances in passive wearable technologies, flexible energy-storage devices, and wearable self-powered systems over the past five years. Particular attention is given to triboelectric, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, and electromagnetic energy-harvesting technologies, with emphasis on their working principles, textile-based structural designs, output performance, and flexible integration characteristics. Recent applications in personal thermal management and self-powered thermotherapy are also discussed. Finally, key challenges, including low-frequency energy-utilization efficiency, long-term stability, environmental adaptability, and system integration, are highlighted, together with future perspectives on multi-source energy harvesting, intelligent regulation, and long-term health management.