N -Acetylneuraminic acid and 3′-sialyllactose supplementation unlock shared and unique atheroprotective mechanisms through the gut–liver–coronary axis in hypercholesterolemic LDLR −/− mice

Neu5Ac and 3′-SL inhibit atherosclerosis via the gut–liver–coronary axis in HCD-fed LDLR −/− mice. 3′-SL acts outside-in through the gut microbiota, while Neu5Ac works inside-out via the host metabolism, offering multi-targeted atheroprotection.