Long-term effects of duckweed cover on the performance and microbial community of a pilot-scale waste stabilization pond

Duckweed-based ponds (DP), as a modified type of waste stabilisation ponds (WSP) are receiving growing attention due to the sustainable production of high-quality duckweed biomass. However, the comprehensive effects of duckweed cover on nutrient removal, greenhouse gas emission and microbial community of the WSP have rarely been studied. In this study, two pilot-scale WSP (12 m 2 ) with (DP) and without (OP) a duckweed mat on the surface were compared over 1 year to determine the effects. The results showed that, compared to OP, DP had higher TP, but lower TN and NH 4 + -N removal efficiencies, and lower pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and sedimentation rate of settling detritus. For both nitrogen and phosphorus removal, the dominant pathway was duckweed uptake (66.95% and 93.18%, respectively) in DP; however, it became other pathways (mainly nitrification/denitrification, 82.27%) and sedimentation (87.65%), respectively, in OP. Meanwhile, DP had lower N 2 O, but higher CH 4 emission fluxes than OP, resulting in comparable global warming potential between OP and DP (approximately 2800 g CO 2 /m 2 /yr). Microbial community analysis indicated that the greater nitrogen removal and N 2 O emission in OP could be attributed to higher abundance of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in the water and denitrifiers in the sediment, supported by higher DO and settling organic carbon, respectively. Meanwhile, the greater CH 4 emission in DP could be attributed to higher abundance of methanogens and syntrophic methanogenic bacteria in the sediment. Thus, despite favourable effects on nutrient recovery and phosphorus removal mainly attributed to duckweed uptake, duckweed cover had unfavourable effects on nitrogen removal and CH 4 emission reduction of the WSP mainly attributed to microbial taxa which were influenced by environmental conditions (such as DO and settling detritus) in the WSP. These findings help to clarify the influencing mechanism of duckweed cover, providing overall insight into the function and application of the DP. • Two pilot-scale ponds with (DP) and without (OP) duckweed were compared over 1 year. • Duckweed had favourable effects on N, P recovery and P removal due to plant uptake. • Duckweed had unfavourable effects on N removal and CH 4 emission reduction. • More AOB and denitrifiers supported greater N removal and N 2 O emission of OP. • More methanogens and syntrophic bacteria supported greater CH 4 emission of DP.