Prediction of proliferative diabetic retinopathy using machine learning in Latino and non‐Hispanic black cohorts with routine blood and urine testing

Abstract Purpose The objective was to predict proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) in non‐Hispanic Black (NHB) and Latino (LA) patients by applying machine learning algorithms to routinely collected blood and urine laboratory results. Methods Electronic medical records of 1124 type 2 diabetes patients treated at the Bronxcare Hospital eye clinic between January and December 2019 were analysed. Data collected included demographic information (ethnicity, age and sex), blood (fasting glucose, haemoglobin A1C [HbA1c] high‐density lipoprotein [HDL], low‐density lipoprotein [LDL], serum creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR]) and urine (albumin‐to‐creatinine ratio [ACR]) test results and the outcome measure of retinopathy status. The efficacy of different machine learning models was assessed and compared. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis was employed to evaluate the contribution of each feature to the model's predictions. Results The balanced random forest model surpassed other models in predicting PDR for both NHB and LA cohorts, achieving an AUC (area under the curve) of 83%. Regarding sex, the model exhibited remarkable performance for the female LA demographic, with an AUC of 87%. The SHAP analysis revealed that PDR‐related factors influenced NHB and LA patients differently, with more pronounced disparity between sexes. Furthermore, the optimal cut‐off values for these factors showed variations based on sex and ethnicity. Conclusions This study demonstrates the potential of machine learning in identifying individuals at higher risk for PDR by leveraging routine blood and urine test results. It allows clinicians to prioritise at‐risk individuals for timely evaluations. Furthermore, the findings emphasise the importance of accounting for both ethnicity and sex when analysing risk factors for PDR in type 2 diabetes individuals.