Temporal and spatial shifts in the chemical composition of urban coastal rainwaters of Kuwait: The role of air mass trajectory and meteorological variables

The rainwater chemistry encompasses the signatures of geogenic and anthropogenic processes along the regional air mass movement apart from the local sources. The predominance of dust events and anthropogenic emissions in arid regions facilitate new particle formation. Further, rain events of different seasons depict moisture sources from diverse regions reflecting variation in the regional geochemistry with respect to seasons. Hence, to characterize the geochemical composition of rainwater, the study has focused on an integrated approach by considering regional transport, meteorological components and possible local sources. A total of 74 rainwater samples were collected from 27 rain events in 2018, 2019, and 2022, representing urban coastal areas of Kuwait predominantly of Ca-SO4-HCO3 type. The average pH and electrical conductivity of the rainwater were 7.18 and 140 μS/cm, respectively. The sea salt fractions calculated relative to Kuwait seawater ranged from 25.6 to >100 %, with higher values attributed to anthropogenic sources. Sea salt fraction, ion ratios, principal component analysis and factor scores revealed the terrestrial and anthropogenic sources apart from marine contributions. In addition, new particle formation and aerosols contributed to the rainwater chemistry involving SOx, NOx, and photochemical reactions during higher relative humidity and lesser wind speed. The HYSPLIT reflected that the moisture sources were largely from western regions of the study area, and those of December and January events had long-distance travel across the Azores high originating from northeast America. The trajectories of the November events are observed to originate from the Caspian/Black Sea region in the northeastern part of Kuwait with a relatively shorter distance of travel. The rainfall samples had higher ionic concentrations, and saturated with aragonite and calcite minerals in a few locations specifically after the dust events, while the subsequent rain events were less polluted.