3D-Printed Carbon-Based Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices: Material Design, Structural Engineering, and Application Frontiers

With the global energy structure transitioning towards clean and low-carbon alternatives, electrochemical energy storage technologies have emerged as pivotal enablers for achieving efficient renewable energy utilization and carbon neutrality objectives. However, conventional electrode materials remain constrained by inherent limitations, including low specific surface area, sluggish ion diffusion kinetics, and insufficient mechanical stability, which fundamentally hinder the synergistic fulfillment of high energy density, superior power density, and prolonged cycling durability. Three-dimensional printing technology offers a revolutionary paradigm for designing and fabricating carbon-based electrochemical energy storage devices. By enabling precise control over both the microstructural architecture and macro-scale morphology of electrode materials, this additive manufacturing approach significantly enhances energy/power densities, as well as cycling stability. Specifically, 3D printing facilitates biomimetic topological designs (e.g., hierarchical porous networks, vertically aligned ion channels) and functional hybridization strategies (e.g., carbon/metal oxide hybrids, carbon/biomass-derived composites), thereby achieving synergistic optimization of charge transfer kinetics and mechanical endurance. This review systematically summarizes recent advancements in 3D-printed carbon-based electrodes across major energy storage systems, including supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, and metal–air batteries. Particular emphasis is placed on the design principles of carbon-based inks, multiscale structural engineering strategies, and process optimization methodologies. Furthermore, we prospect future research directions focusing on smart 4D printing-enabled dynamic regulation, multi-material integrated systems, and artificial intelligence-guided design frameworks to bridge the gap between laboratory prototypes and industrial-scale applications. Through multidisciplinary convergence spanning materials science, advanced manufacturing, and device engineering, 3D-printed carbon electrodes are poised to catalyze the development of next-generation high-performance, customizable energy storage systems.