Anion-Coordination-Driven Assembly

The assembly of discrete architectures has been an important subject in supramolecular chemistry because of their elegant structures and fascinating properties. During the last several decades, supramolecular chemists have developed manifold strategies for hierarchical assembly, which are normally classified by two main types of driving force: covalent and noncovalent interactions. Typical noncovalent interactions include metal coordination, hydrogen bonding, and other weak forces. These approaches have achieved great progress in the construction of various supramolecular structures, such as macrocycles, cages, polyhedra, and interlocked systems. Among these methods, metal-coordination-driven assembly is attractive due to the well-defined coordination properties of metal ions. Indeed, in terms of supramolecular chemistry, the concept of "coordination" has been expanded beyond transition metals. In particular, anion coordination chemistry, which was first proposed by Lehn in 1978 [ Acc. Chem. Res. 1978, 11, 49] and then elucidated in detail by Bowman-James two decades later [ Acc. Chem. Res. 2005, 38, 671], has grown up to a subfield of supramolecular chemistry. It is noticeable that anions also show "dual valencies" like transition metals, wherein the "primary valence" is the charge balance for anions by countercations while the "secondary valence", i.e., the coordination, refers to hydrogen bonding interactions where the electron flow is from the electron-rich anion (the coordination center) to hydrogen bonding donors (the ligands). Thus, anions also display certain coordination numbers and specific coordination geometries. Although such features are far less regular than those of transition metals, they are sufficient to allow anion coordination to serve as the driving force for assembling discrete supramolecular architectures. In this Account, the anion-coordination-driven assembly (ACDA), a new assembling strategy established by us during the past decade, will be presented. We summarize our work in the construction of a series of "aniono" supramolecular structures, especially triple helicates and tetrahedral cages, based on the coordination between oligourea ligands and anions (mostly phosphate). In particular, we will detail the considerations in the design of ligands, the assembling process including structural transformation, and functionalization of the systems toward guest inclusion, supramolecular catalysis, photoswitches, and molecular devices. These results demonstrate the great potential of ACDA in fabricating novel anion-based systems. Although the design concept was originally loaned from traditional coordination chemistry of transition metals, and structures of anion complexes bear some resemblance to metal complexes, there are significant differences of the aniono supramolecular assemblies from the metallo analogues. For example, these metal-free systems are held together by multiple hydrogen bonds (dozens to nearly 100), thus facilitating assembly/disassembly under mild conditions and relatively flexible structures for adaptive guest inclusion. To this end, intriguing applications (supramolecular chirality, catalysis, energy storage, etc.) may be expected for aniono systems. We hope the current Account will attract more attention from researchers in supramolecular assembly and inspire more efforts in this fascinating area.