Cardiac function, structural, and electrical remodeling by microgravity exposure

Space medicine is key to the human exploration of outer space and pushes the boundaries of science, technology, and medicine. Because of harsh environmental conditions related to microgravity and other factors and hazards in outer space, astronauts and spaceflight participants face unique health and medical challenges, including those related to the heart. In this review, we summarize the literature regarding the effects of spaceflight on cardiac structure and function. We also provide an in-depth review of the literature regarding the effects of microgravity on cardiac calcium handling. Our review can inform future mechanistic and therapeutic studies and is applicable to other physiological states similar to microgravity such as prolonged horizontal bed rest and immobilization.