Childhood lead exposure increases the risk of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis

Environmental lead exposure has been a much-discussed risk factor for the development of ADHD for decades. However, due to methodological shortcomings, the existing research on this topic is highly inconsistent. We will attempt to clarify this question by performing a meta-analysis based on a systematic literature search until February 2024 including different databases such as Pubmed and Google Scholar. The effects of environmental lead exposure were synthesized by odds ratios. A random effects model was deployed with a Paule-Mandel estimator using Hedges' invariance weighting. In addition, we carried out sensitivity analyses to examine the robustness of effects, including the detection of outliers, publication bias, p-hacking and moderating variables. In total, 14 studies with 14 effect sizes were included which had investigated the effects of lead exposure on the development of ADHD. The analyses were based on a final sample size of N = 7618 with n = 2554 ADHD cases (33,53 %) and n = 5064 healthy controls (66.47 %). Our results show that lead exposure was significantly associated with a higher risk of ADHD development. Regression analyses demonstrated that increased age of participants and increased lead significantly enhanced the risk of ADHD. Summing up we present novel results concerning the relationship between environmental lead exposure and the development of ADHD, while discussing underlying pathomechanisms as well as limitations. Finally, we provide recommendations for future studies and public health policies.