Haplotype-specific analyses in apple: insights from ‘Golden Delicious’

Apple is one of the major cultivated fruit crops in temperate regions. To better support breeding programs and facilitate the development of improved cultivars, we generated a new haplotype-resolved and phased version of the 'Golden Delicious' genome, one of the founders of many modern apple lineages. The phased assembly features the separation of the two haplotypes, with a total size of 647.3 Mb and 649.2 Mb, respectively. The phasing was accurately validated with 10,321 specific Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs). Telomere-to-telomere continuity was verified by the analysis of telomeric sequence composition at the end of each chromosome. Gene prediction identified a total of 45,116 genes in haplotype 1 and 45,063 genes in haplotype 2. A pangenome analysis employing 6 haplotype resolved genomes identified both common and unique gene families. The availability of a phased genome enabled the assessment of genome-wide allelic specific expression. Our case study, focusing on Md-PG1 (a key regulator of fruit softening), revealed that the allele present on haplotype 2 (GDH2-10g24673) was the dominant contributor to total gene expression. In addition, the phased genome also showed specific miRNA chromosomal distribution patterns, as well as a distinct methylation profile. Altogether, these genomic resources provide new insights into the allelic regulation of key agronomic traits and represent a valuable tool to accelerate apple breeding.