Tablet-like TiO2/C nanocomposites for repeated type I sonodynamic therapy of pancreatic cancer

Abstract Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) represents a viable approach to overcoming the limited ability of photodynamic therapy to penetrate biological barriers. However, pancreatic tumors contain a hypoxic microenvironment that limits the efficacy of oxygen-dependent type II SDT, complicating efforts to develop reliable, stable, and hypoxia-tolerant sonosensitizer. Herein, a tablet-like TiO2/C nanocomposite with a metal-organic-framework (MOF)-derived carbon structure was designed and found to be hypoxia-tolerant and stable in response to repeated ultrasound irradiation, enabling the TiO2/C-mediated generation of large quantities of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thereby achieving efficacious type I SDT. Importantly, this nanocomposite continued to generate ROS in response to repeated ultrasound irradiation, and was able to induce tumor cell apoptosis via SDT-induced DNA damage in vitro and in vivo. This TiO2/C nanocomposite also exhibited good biocompatibility and did not induce any apparent toxicity in vitro and in vivo. Together, these data highlight TiO2/C as a valuable nanocomposite capable of facilitating repeated type I SDT, making it a promising tool for the treatment of hypoxic solid pancreatic tumors. Statement of significance In this research, a tablet-like TiO2/C nanocomposite with a metal-organic-framework (MOF)-derived carbon structure was designed, which exhibited great stability upon repeated ultrasound irradiation, hypoxic-tolerant ability and good biocompatibility. After ultrasound irradiation, TiO2/C could efficiently generate reactive oxygen species in an oxygen-independent manner, which overcame the limitation of pure TiO2 nanoparticles. Therefore, it was applied to repeated type I sonodynamic therapy of hypoxic pancreatic tumor.