Critical Minerals and the Global Supply Chain

The accelerating global transition toward clean energy, expanding electrification, and rapid advances in artificial intelligence have sharply increased demand for critical minerals. These minerals underpin renewable power generation, energy storage, semiconductor manufacturing, and multiple strategic sectors, yet their supply chains remain highly complex, geographically concentrated, and exposed to significant economic, environmental, and geopolitical risks. This review provides a comprehensive, multi-mineral assessment of current supply chain structures and the forces likely to shape their future evolution. We examine upstream extraction, refining bottlenecks, downstream manufacturing dynamics, and emerging pressures arising from overlapping demand across energy and nonenergy sectors. The analysis highlights key factors influencing supply availability—including long project lead times, coproduction constraints, trade policies, and environmental challenges—and evaluates technological and policy levers that can enhance resilience. We outline core elements required for comprehensive modeling frameworks capable of supporting robust, forward-looking decision-making in the increasingly mineral-intensive global economy.