Interconnections of insulin/IGF‐1 signaling and autophagy abnormalities in Alzheimer's disease

Levels of insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 (INS/IGF-1) factors in late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) cells are higher than in healthy old controls. AKT activation by INS/IGF-1 signaling is specifically diminished in LOAD cells. INS/IGF-1/AKT/forkhead box protein O1/mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase related endocytosis/autophagy are disrupted in LOAD cells. Intracellular endocytic/autophagic structure distribution is altered in LOAD cells. INS/IGF-1 reverses endocytic/autophagic processes in LOAD versus old control cells.