Exposure-Sensitivity-Adaptability (ESA) framework based evaluation and characteristics analysis of urban disasters vulnerability in China

• •An “Exposure-Sensitivity-Adaptability” framework for vulnerability evaluation is established. • •The synergy of exposure and sensitivity dominated vulnerability. • •The impact of human activities on vulnerability is increasing. Climate change and urbanization have intensified natural disaster risks, necessitating robust urban vulnerability assessments. This study develops an “Exposure-Sensitivity-Adaptability” framework to analyze vulnerabilities across China’s nine major river basin cities from pre--disaster, during--disaster, and post-disaster perspectives, using 36 indicators spanning resources, ecological environments, economy, and social dimensions. Analysis reveals distinct spatial patterns: eastern cities show 35% lower vulnerability scores compared to central and western regions, forming a clear vulnerability gradient. Urban agglomerations, particularly larger cities, demonstrate 28% lower vulnerability indices than non-agglomeration areas. The spatial correlation analysis indicates significant clustering in vulnerability distribution. Eastern regions exhibit superior post-disaster resilience, with recovery rates 1.5 times higher than western areas. Factor analysis reveals that the synergy between sensitivity and resilience factors explains 65% of the total variance in vulnerability assessment. This process-oriented framework provides quantitative insights for enhancing urban disaster resilience across different development stages.