Psychosocial predictors of doping intentions and use in sport and exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a meta-analytic review of psychosocial predictors of doping intention, doping use and inadvertent doping in sport and exercise settings. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: Scopus, Medline, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL Plus, ProQuest Dissertations/Theses and Open Grey. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies (of any design) that measured the outcome variables of doping intention, doping use and/or inadvertent doping and at least one psychosocial determinant of those three variables. RESULTS: We included studies from 25 experiments (N=13 586) and 186 observational samples (N=3 09 130). Experimental groups reported lower doping intentions ( g=-0.21, 95% CI (-0.31 to -0.12)) and doping use ( g=-0.08, 95% CI (-0.14 to -0.03), but not inadvertent doping ( g=-0.70, 95% CI (-1.95 to 0.55)), relative to comparators. For observational studies, protective factors were inversely associated with doping intentions ( z=-0.28, 95% CI -0.31 to -0.24), doping use ( z=-0.09, 95% CI -0.13 to to -0.05) and inadvertent doping ( z=-0.19, 95% CI -0.32 to -0.06). Risk factors were positively associated with doping intentions ( z=0.29, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.32) and use ( z=0.17, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.19), but not inadvertent doping ( z=0.08, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.22). Risk factors for both doping intentions and use included prodoping norms and attitudes, supplement use, body dissatisfaction and ill-being. Protective factors for both doping intentions and use included self-efficacy and positive morality. CONCLUSION: This study identified several protective and risk factors for doping intention and use that may be viable intervention targets for antidoping programmes. Protective factors were negatively associated with inadvertent doping; however, the empirical volume is limited to draw firm conclusions.