Environmental behavior and human health risks of PFAS: occurrence, toxicity, and the state-of-the-art removal approaches

Fluorinated compounds, including poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are characterized by complex behavior, environmental persistence, and resistance to degradation. These thermally stable compounds repel both oil and water. Concerns are mounting over their bioaccumulation in humans and other organisms, given their associated health risks such as endocrine disruption, immune suppression, obesity, elevated cholesterol levels, and cancer. Low concentrations of PFAS detected in drinking water present a potential human exposure pathway. This review addresses the occurrence and exposure pathways of PFAS; their toxicity in humans, plants, and animals; analytical methods for their detection and quantification in aqueous matrices; and their removal techniques including membrane technologies, advanced oxidation processes, adsorption, ion exchange, biological methods, and hydrothermal liquefaction. The factors affecting the removal of PFAS, such as inorganic anions and cations, natural organic matter, and other organic pollutants in wastewater, are also included. Additionally, cost-effective and environmentally friendly methods for regenerating adsorbents are explored. The conclusion discusses the current restrictions and future perspectives on the analysis of PFAS.