Exploring Problem-Solving Scaffolds in General Chemistry: A Systematic Review of Scaffolding Goals and Instructional Approaches

While there is a commonly held belief that chemistry students need assistance in developing problem-solving skills, knowledge about effective scaffolding approaches is limited. In this study, we systematically investigated different scaffolds used to support problem solving in general chemistry by reviewing selected literature on the topic published between 2000 and 2024, in a total of 20 studies. This review represents a synthesis of current published knowledge of problem-solving scaffolding in general chemistry and offers principles to classify scaffolds. Instructors could use this classification to choose and/or design appropriate scaffolds based on the goal of scaffolding (what to scaffold) and implementation mode (how to scaffold). The review also provided insights into the influence of scaffolding on students' ability to solve chemical problems and into knowledge gaps to be addressed by future research. Based on the selected literature, several key findings were identified: (i) resource activation and argumentation processes are facilitated through problem structuring, (ii) both content-specific and metacognitive processes need to be scaffolded, (iii) the nature of scaffold implementation influences student engagement with scaffolding and the resulting problem-solving processes, (iv) effectiveness of scaffolding is related to instructor expertise, and (v) scaffold fading remains an under-researched area. To understand when and how to remove problem-solving scaffolding, further investigation relating to scaffold fading is required.