Production and Multi-Parameter Live Cell Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) of Multicellular Spheroids

Multicellular tumor spheroids are a popular 3D tissue microaggregate model for reproducing tumor microenvironment, testing and optimizing drug therapies and using bio- and nanosensors in a 3D context. Their ease of production, predictable size, growth, and observed nutrient and metabolite gradients are important to recapitulate the 3D niche-like cell microenvironment. However, spheroid heterogeneity and variability of their production methods can influence overall cell metabolism, viability, and drug response. This makes it difficult to choose the most appropriate methodology, considering the requirements in size, variability, needs of biofabrication, and use as in vitro 3D tissue models in stem and cancer cell biology. In particular, spheroid production can influence their compatibility with quantitative live microscopies, such as optical metabolic imaging, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), monitoring of spheroid hypoxia with nanosensors, or viability. Here, a number of conventional spheroid formation protocols are presented, highlighting their compatibility with the live widefield, confocal, and two-photon microscopies. The follow-up imaging to analysis pipeline with multiplexed autofluorescence FLIM and, using various types of cancer and stem cell spheroids, is also presented.