Electrosprayed Micro-to-Nanoscale Particles with Tunable Morphologies and Compositions for Pulmonary Drug Delivery Applications and Inhalation Therapies: A Review

Electrospray technology has gained significant attention as a novel method for drug delivery, offering precise control over the particle size, morphology, and drug release profiles. Traditional delivery routes, such as oral or intravenous, often face challenges such as low bioavailability, systemic side effects, and poor targeting. Pulmonary drug delivery provides rapid absorption and localized treatment but is limited by the respiratory tract's physiological barriers. Electrosprayed particles with tunable structures, such as core-shell and porous morphologies, show great promise in overcoming these limitations by enhancing lung deposition, bioavailability, and sustained release. This review highlights the advantages of electrospray over conventional fabrication techniques in producing inhalable particles with high encapsulation efficiency and functional versatility. Despite challenges related to scalability, formulation stability, and regulatory approval, recent advancements in materials, device design, and integration with emerging technologies continue to expand its potential. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of electrospray applications in pulmonary drug delivery, focusing on process fundamentals, materials, particle design, case studies, and current challenges and innovations. This work underscores the importance of electrospray in advancing targeted lung therapies and encourages future research to support clinical translation and broader pharmaceutical applications.