In-depth investigation into the hierarchical causal chain of fatal crashes between vulnerable road users and single motor vehicle

Clarifying the causal relationships between VRU-vehicle interaction and crash is essential, which can help finding the critical causes of fatal crashes. The analysis identified VRU violations and the inability of vehicles to brake in time as critical determinants of crash severity in both single and consecutive crash scenarios. Accordingly, targeted safety interventions were proposed, including enhancements to pedestrian crossing infrastructure and improvements in vehicle braking systems to mitigate crash risk.