Association between serum levels of essential elements (copper, zinc, and iron) and major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION: Trace elements such as zinc, iron, and copper are integral to neurochemical regulation, oxidative balance, and immune modulation. Their dysregulation has been increasingly implicated in the pathophysiology of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to quantify differences in serum levels of zinc, iron, and copper between individuals with MDD and healthy controls. CONTENT: statistic, and publication bias was evaluated via funnel plots and Egger's regression. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test the robustness of findings. SUMMARY: =58.2 %) were lower in MDD patients. Evidence of publication bias was observed for zinc and copper, but adjusted estimates remained significant for zinc and iron. OUTLOOK: This study demonstrates consistent reductions in serum zinc and iron among individuals with MDD, supporting their potential role in depressive pathophysiology. While copper findings were inconclusive, the stability of zinc and iron results highlights the clinical relevance of micronutrient assessment in depression. These findings provide a foundation for future research in nutritional psychiatry and adjunctive treatment strategies.