Chemical composition differences in wild Gardenia jasminoides fruits across provenances using metabolomics

Fruits of Gardenia jasminoides (G. jasminoides) have extremely high medicinal value. However, the quality and traits of the plants vary significantly based on their provenances. In addition, the behaviour of the known bioactive components, such as geniposide and crocin, has been the primary focus of the research on G. jasminoides. However, the identification of unknown bioactive components and their metabolomics remains underexplored. Therefore, analysing the metabolic differences between gardenias from different sources is essential to provide a comprehensive theoretical basis for the evaluation of G. jasminoides and germplasm resource identification. To systematically evaluate the morphology, secondary metabolites, typical active ingredients, and antioxidant activity of wild G. jasminoides fruits. Gardenia fruits were collected from different provenances. Metabolites were identified via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The metabolic differences were compared using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The antioxidant capacity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assays and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays, and its correlation with typical active ingredients was analysed. A total of 444 and 240 metabolites were identified using UPLC-MS/MS in positive and negative ion modes, respectively. The HCA results of the flavonoids indicated that the higher content of flavonoids was in the fruits from Lukou. The differential analysis of metabolites in fruits from Shaoyang, Miluo and Lukou showed that the fruit from Miluo had the highest upregulated differential metabolites. The metabolic characteristics of the Ningxiang and Xiangxi extracts were similar, while those of Lukou, Miluo and Shaoyang extracts differed significantly.