Nanomaterial-based autophagy modulation: multiple weapons to inflame immune systems and the tumor microenvironment

Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, is a sensitive indicator of environmental shifts and is crucial for the clearance of cellular debris, the remodeling of cellular architecture, and the facilitation of cell growth and development. The interplay between stromal, tumor, and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment is intricately linked to autophagy. Therefore, the modulation of autophagy in these cell types is essential for developing effective cancer treatment strategies. This review describes the design and optimization of nanomaterials that modulate autophagy in tumor-associated and immune cells. This review elucidates the primary mechanisms by which nanomaterials induce autophagy and discusses their application in cancer therapy, underscoring the potential of these materials to eradicate cancer cells, bolster the immune response, and elicit robust, enduring antitumor immunity, thereby advancing the frontiers of oncological treatment.