Limonene inhibits streptococcal biofilm formation by targeting surface-associated virulence factors

The present study explores the efficacy of limonene, a cyclic terpene found in the rind of citrus fruits, for antibiofilm potential against species of the genus Streptococcus, which have been deeply studied worldwide owing to their multiple pathogenic efficacy. Limonene showed a concentration-dependent reduction in the biofilm formation of Streptococcus pyogenes (SF370), with minimal biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) of 400 μg ml − 1. Limonene was found to possess about 75–95 % antibiofilm activity against all the pathogens tested, viz. Streptococcus pyogenes (SF370 and 5 clinical isolates), Streptococcus mutans (UA159) and Streptococcus mitis (ATCC 6249) at 400 μg ml − 1 concentration. Microscopic analysis of biofilm architecture revealed a quantitative breach in biofilm formation. Results of a surface-coating assay suggested that the possible mode of action of limonene could be by inhibiting bacterial adhesion to surfaces, thereby preventing the biofilm formation cascade. Susceptibility of limonene-treated Streptococcus pyogenes to healthy human blood goes in unison with gene expression studies in which the mga gene was found to be downregulated. Anti-cariogenic efficacy of limonene against Streptococcus mutans was confirmed, with inhibition of acid production and downregulation of the vicR gene. Downregulation of the covR, mga and vicR genes, which play a critical role in regulating surface-associated proteins in Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus mutans, respectively, is yet further evidence to show that limonene targets surface-associated proteins. The results of physiological assays and gene expression studies clearly show that the surface-associated antagonistic mechanism of limonene also reduces surface-mediated virulence factors.