Enhancing Urea Recovery and Hydrolysis Inhibition from Source-Separated Urine through a Novel Urea Electric-Assisted Forward Osmosis System: Insights from Reaction Kinetics and Mechanisms

generation, thereby reducing urease activity by 34.73%. Additionally, partial least squares path modeling revealed that the electric field was the critical driving factor for urea recovery in the UEFO. Contribution distribution revealed that the electric field contributed 59.41% to urea recovery and 79.29% to hydrolysis inhibition, highlighting its key role as the core driving force in UEFO. Mechanistic exploration revealed that the electric field dynamically regulated the osmotic pressure difference across the FO membrane by modulating ion migration and the chemical environment, thereby promoting efficient urea migration and inhibiting its hydrolysis. Furthermore, an economic assessment demonstrated that the use of UEFO could generate a net profit of $0.34 per ton of urine treated, achieving a positive economic return. This study provides an innovative solution for urea recovery from source-separated urine, offering critical scientific and technological support for the development of sustainable nitrogen resource recycling technologies.