Skarn Deposits

Abstract Skarn consists of coarse-grained Ca-Fe-Mg-Mn silicates formed by replacement of carbonate- bearing rocks accompanying regional or contact metamorphism and metasomatism. The major processes which result in skarn include metamorphic recrystallization of impure carbonate rocks, bimetasomatic reaction between unlike lithologies, and infiltrational metasomatism involving hydrothermal fluids of magmatic origin. Metal deposits that contain skarn as gangue, termed skarn deposits, may be formed by any combination of the above processes. However, the majority of the world’s major skarn deposits are thought to be related to magmatic-hydro-thermal systems; these are the skarn deposits treated in this paper. Skarn deposits are among the most abundant and variable of all types of mineral deposits; yet, in spite of their diversity, they exhibit systematic geologic, petrologic, and mineralogic features which permit classification and detailed investigation. The most useful classification of skarn is based on the dominant calc-silicate mineral assemblages. Thus, skarn that replaces dolomite largely consists of magnesian silicates such as forsterite and serpentine and is termed magnesian skarn. Skarn that replaces limestone largely consists of Fe-Ca silicates such as andradite and hedenbergite and is termed calcic skarn. Skarn deposits, on the other hand, are best classified on the basis of the dominant economic metal; six major subclasses, consisting of Fe, W, Cu, Zn-Pb, Mo, and Sn, are discussed in this paper. Although all subclasses can occur in either magnesian or calcic skarn, magnesian skarn deposits of W, Cu, and Zn-Pb are notably sparse. Variations within the subclasses of skarn deposits are recognized as a function of magma type, depth of emplacement, reducing capacity and composition of host rocks, distance of carbonate horizon from the magmatic source, and degree of meteoric water involvement. These factors can combine to yield continuous transitions between some classes. The majority of skarn deposits are of Mesozoic or younger age. The few important Paleozoic examples are W and Sn skarns which as a group may represent relatively deep environments of formation. All skarn types are abundant in Mesozoic time, but Cu and Zn-Pb skarn deposits, which in most cases represent a relatively shallow environment, are dominantly of Tertiary age. Most likely, this age distribution reflects differences in level of erosion rather than an evolution of ore-forming processes. Calcic magnetite skarn deposits virtually are the only skarn type found in oceanic island-arc terrains. They are widespread in the Urals, Philippines, and coastal British Columbia. Characteristic features include: (1) their association with epizonal diorite stocks emplaced in cogenetic basalt-andesite; (2) an Fe-rich calc-silicate gangue consisting of epidote-grandite-ferrosalite with retrograde chlorite-actinolite, which reflects intermediate oxidation states; (3) extensive epidote-pyroxene or albite-scapolite alteration of plutonic and volcanic rocks; (4) a low sulfide content; and (5) a minor metal suite of Cu, Zn, Co, and Au. Minor sulfides reflect low sulfidation states and include pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite; cobaltite and bornite commonly occur in trace amounts. In contrast, magnesian magnetite skarn deposits are common in continental margin orogenic belts associated wih mesozonal to epizonal felsic plutons; they are found in most base metal sulfide skarn districts where dolomite is present. In this case, the high magnetite content is a function not of the igneous rock association but, rather, of the dolomitic wall rocks, in which Fe-rich calc-silicates are not stable. Inner diopside-spinel and outer forsterite-calcite zones of the early, high-temperature stage are overprinted at lower temperatures by humite, borates, magnetite, phlogopite, and serpentine. Minor sulfides refleet intermediate sulfidation states and include pyrrhotite, pyrite, calcopyrite, and sphalerite. Deposits of this type commonly display transitions to Cu skarns. Tungsten skarns and base metal (Cu, Zn-Pb, Mo) sulfide skarns are most characteristic of continental margin orogenic belts and are commonly thought to be related to subduction-related I-type magmas. Tungsten skarn deposits typically are associated with coarse-grained granodiorite to quartz monzonite stocks and batholiths emplaced in eugeoclinal limestone-shale ± volcanic sequences. Contact metamorphic and reaction skarn assemblages are overprinted by stratiform metasomatic calcic skarn, consisting of garnet-pyroxene (± scheelite) and outer wollastonite-idocrase zones in marble, and pyroxene-plagioclase-epidote in plutons and pelitic hornfelses. Zones of hydrous silicates, particularly biotite and hornblende with accessory quartz, feldspar and calcite, crosscut early skarn patterns and commonly contain abundant scheelite and sulfides. Mineral compositions in calcic W skarns, a general function of depth of skarn formation and host-rock composition, can be expressed as a continuum between two end members: reduced types formed in carbonaceous host rocks and/or at greater depths, and oxidized types formed in noncarbonaceous or hematitic host rocks and/or at lesser depths. Diagnostic minerals of the reduced types reflect low oxidation states (e.g., hedenbergitic pyroxene, almandine-rich garnet, Fe-rich biotite and hornblende, magnetite) and low sulfidation states (e.g., pyrrhotite, rare pyrite, traces of native bismuth). Diagnostic minerals of the oxidized types reflect intermediate oxidation states (e.g., salitic pyroxene, andraditic garnet, epidote) and intermediate sulfidation states (pyrite, minor pyrrhotite, traces of bismuthinite). In general, the geology and mineralogy of W skarns is radically different from that of Cu and Zn-Pb skarns; these differences point to W skarn formation at a relatively higher temperature and deeper environment than the base metal sulfide types. The majority of Cu skarn deposits are associated with epizonal granodiorite and quartz monzonite stocks in continental crust; relatively few occurrences are known from oceanic island-arc settings associated with quartz diorite and granodiorite plutons. As a group, calcic Cu skarn deposits are characterized by an association with felsic porphyry-textured stocks of hypabyssal character, proximity to stock contacts, high garnet to pyroxene ratios, relatively oxidized assemblages (e.g., andraditic garnet with diopsidic pyroxene, magnetite with hematite), and moderate to high contents of sulfide minerals of intermediate sulfidation state (e.g., pyrite-chal-copyrite, minor tennantite, sphalerite). Within this class, a continuum may exist between: (1) smaller Cu skarns associated with unaltered barren stocks and displaying relatively minor retrograde alteration and (2) larger Cu skarns associated with altered and mineralized porphyry copper stocks and commonly displaying more ferric-rich garnet, extensive retrograde alteration, and greater sulfide content. Some skarns mined for Cu display a more complex metal suite, including W, Mo, Bi, Zn, and Au and less-oxidized mineral assemblages (e.g., grandite with ferrosalite) than those discussed above; these deposits may represent transitions either to oxidized W skarns or to some Mo-bearing skarns. Calcic Zn-Pb skarn deposits form in the middle to late orogenic stages of continental margin belts and are associated with granodioritic to granitic magmatism. These skarns are characterized by their occurrence along structural or lithologic contacts at some distance from plutonic contacts, high pyroxene to garnet ratios, distinctive Mn- and Fe-rich minerals (e.g., early johannsenitic pyroxene, minor andraditic garnet, and late bustamite, rhodonite, dannemorite, and ilvaite), and the association of significant amounts of sulfides (e.g., sphalerite, galena, pyrite, pyrrhotite) with pyroxene rather than with garnet or other silicate minerals. Variations within this class may be related to distance from causative plutons; proximal Zn-Pb skarns are less Mn-rich, contain more sulfides in skarn than in limestone replacement ore, and display higher garnet to pyroxene ratios and lower Pb to Cu ratios than do distal skarns. Distal Pb-Zn skarn deposits commonly contain the bulk of ore in carbonate gangue beyond the skarn zone and may be linked with certain manto and vein deposits of Pb-Zn-Ag. An important factor in the formation of Zn-Pb skarn deposits is the travel distance of hydrothermal fluids between source and reactive limestone, which results in depletion of fluids in Mg, Al, and Cu and relative enrichment in Mn, Fe, Zn, and Pb. Tin skarns are associated with ilmenite-series granites of both I- and S-type emplaced late in the orogenic cycle of continental magmatic arcs or in relatively stable or incipiently rifted cratonic environments. The granites commonly contain greisen alteration associated with lithophile element deposits. Magnesian Sn skarns display an evolutionary sequence involving: (1) an early skarn stage of spinel, pyroxene, and forsterite; (2) an intermediate tin-borate stage of phlogopite, magnetite, and tin-bearing Fe-Mg borates; and (3) a late cassiterite stage of cassiterite, fluoborite, magnetite, and micas. The late stage is commonly accompanied by deposition of minor amounts of sulfides of low sulfidation state, including arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, galena, and sphalerite. In some localities, the intermediate stage displays a calcic skarn overprint of magnetite, idocrase, and tin-bearing andradite. Calcic Sn skarns show evolutionary trends similar to those described above, in that Sn is not deposited as cass