Inbreeding and Outbreeding Depression in Wild and Captive Insect Populations

Major changes in genetic variation are generally considered deleterious to populations. The massive biodiversity of insects distinguishes them from other animal groups. Insect deviant effective population sizes, alternative modes of reproduction, advantageous inbreeding, endosymbionts, and other factors translate to highly specific inbreeding and outbreeding outcomes. We review the evidence for inbreeding and outbreeding depression and consequences across wild and captive insect populations, highlighting conservation, invasion, and commercial production entomology. We not only discern patterns but also explain why they are often inconsistent or absent. We discuss how insect inbreeding and outbreeding depression operates in complex, sometimes contradictory directions, such as inbreeding being detrimental to individuals but beneficial to populations. We conclude by giving recommendations to ( a ) more comprehensively account for important variables in insect inbreeding and outbreeding depression, ( b ) standardize the means of measuring genetic variation and phenotypic impacts for insect populations so as to more reliably predict when inbreeding or outbreeding depression applies, and ( c ) outline possible remediation options, both nongenetic and genetic, including revision of restrictive international trade laws.